Yaksha and Yakshini

 

Yakshi from bharhut second centuary b.c.

Yakshas and Yakshinis: Unveiling Mysteries Across Ancient Indian Texts and Art

In the rich tapestry of ancient Indian mythology and culture, the enigmatic figures of Yakshas and Yakshinis emerge as fascinating supernatural beings with intricate narratives, distinctive characteristics, and significant roles. This exploration delves into their origins, roles in literature, iconographic representations, supernatural attributes, and the cultural impact of these entities across different periods in ancient Indian history.

**1. Origin and Genealogy in Vedic and Puranic Texts:

The Vedas, the foundational scriptures of ancient Indian religious thought, present glimpses of Yaksha-like entities, setting the stage for their later elaboration in Puranic literature. The Puranas, particularly the Vayu-Purana, offer detailed genealogies of Yakshas, unveiling their intricate familial connections. Notable Yaksha families include Vasuruci-Kratusthali, Loheyi, and Viśravas-Devavarņini. The origin of Yakshas from Apsara mothers adds a mystical dimension to their lineage, and their large royal families are highlighted in these genealogical accounts.

Epics suggest that Prajāpati-Brahmă played a role in their creation, either directly or through a cosmic egg. Sage Pulatsya and the Puranic sage Kaśyapa, paired with Viśvā or Khasha, are also credited as progenitors of Yakshas. The Vamana Purana attributes their origin to Kapila and his consort Keśint, while Daksha's daughter Krodha is mentioned as another creator of Yakshas. These diverse narratives paint a rich mythological backdrop for the birth of Yakshas.

 A Devajāti: The Kindred Group of Yakshas:

The terminology surrounding Yakshas reveals their classification within a devajāti, a kindred group that includes various demi-gods such as Deva, Gandharva, Apsaras, Kinnara, and Guhyaka. This grouping suggests a shared realm and attributes among these celestial beings. Exploring the characteristics common to Yakshas, Gandharvas, and Apsaras unveils a tapestry of fragrance, musical affinity, control over speech and offspring, wisdom, and beauty. The concept of a devajāti provides a contextual lens through which the distinctiveness of Yakshas can be better understood.

 Shared Attributes with Gandharvas and Apsaras:

Diving into the world of Gandharvas, Yakshas exhibit shared attributes such as an appreciation for fragrance, possession of women, control over speech and offspring, and a habitat in specific regions. Both Gandharvas and Yakshas are portrayed as possessing supreme wisdom and beauty, emphasizing their shared appreciation for the arts, particularly music. The Apsaras, associated with moving in waters, present another intriguing parallel. Commonalities emerge in their shared habitat within trees like the banyan and Asvattha, as well as their fondness for dancing, singing, and playing. The overlap in characteristics suggests an intricate interplay within the celestial realm.

Proximity to Rakshasas and Pisacas:

The proximity of Yakshas to Rakshasas and Pisacas, particularly in the Vedic context, adds layers to their characterization. Rakshasas, denoting terrestrial demons and goblins, share feathered or beastly forms with Yakshas. Both entities are depicted as taking pleasure in destroying offspring, showcasing a darker aspect to their nature. The uncommon appearance and monstrous deformities of both Rakshasas and Yakshas further align them in the realm of formidable and fearsome beings. The similarity in their food habits adds another dimension to their shared characteristics.

 The Allure of Apsaras and Yakshīs:

The captivating beauty of Apsaras and Yakshīs, as highlighted in various texts, draws parallels to the allure of these celestial beings. Human beings are often described as deriving sexual pleasure from both Apsaras and Yakshīs, emphasizing their enchanting and seductive qualities. The narratives surrounding these divine entities explore the intersection of desire and the supernatural, adding layers of complexity to their cultural significance.

Yaksha Lineages in Puranic Chronicles

In the timeless annals of Puranic lore, the enchanting narratives of Yaksha families unfold like ancient scrolls, offering glimpses into their mythical origins and familial connections. Let us embark on a celestial journey through the genealogies meticulously chronicled in the Vayu-Purāna.

Genealogy I: Vasuruci's Radiant Descent

The saga commences with Vasuruci, a celestial luminary, entering into the sacred bonds of matrimony with Kratusthali. Their union begets the illustrious Rajatanabha, a scion destined for greatness. Rajatanabha, in his cosmic journey, finds his eternal companion in Bhadra. This divine alliance blesses the realms with two radiant sons, Manivara and Manibhadra.

• Vasuruci married to Kratusthali
• Rajatanabha married to Bhadra
• Manivara
• Manibhadra

Their progeny continues the celestial legacy as Manivara, in the celestial dance of matrimony, unites with Devajant. The fruits of their union manifest in the form of Pūraņabhadra, an embodiment of Yaksha majesty.

• Manivara married to Devajant
• Pūraņabhadra

Genealogy II: Pracetas' Prosperous Lineage

Another strand of Yaksha lineage unveils as Pracetas, a luminary in his own right, enters the sacred bonds with Suyaśā. Their cosmic union bestows upon them four illustrious sons - Kambala, Harikeśa, Kancana, and Meghamält. The celestial dance extends to four daughters - Loheyi (also known as Yaksho pasanta), Bharateya, Krišāngı, and Visaleya.

• Pracetas married to Suyaśā
• Sons:
• Kambala
• Harikeśa
• Kancana
• Meghamält
• Daughters:
• Loheyi (Yaksho pasanta)
• Bharateya
• Krišāngı
• Visaleya

Genealogy III: Kubera's Regal Descent

The cosmic ballet continues as Viśravas, a celestial luminary, weds Devavarņini. Their union gifts the realms with Kubera, the lord of riches. Kubera, in his celestial abode, joins hands with Riddhi, bringing forth three sons - Nalakübara, Manigrīva, and Pancälika.

• Viśravas married to Devavarņini
• Kubera married to Riddhi
• Sons:
• Nalakübara
• Manigrīva
• Pancälika

Insights and Beyond: A Glimpse into the Mythical Realms

As the cosmic stories unfold, we glean insights into the mythical origins and familial connections of Yakshas. Apsaras mothers grace the first two genealogies, weaving a celestial thread that ties the Yakshas to ethereal realms. Kratusthali and Suyaśā, Gandharva daughters described as Apsaras, add a nuanced layer to the divine lineage.

In this celestial ballet, the daughters of Suyaśā, although mentioned as Apsaras, give birth to powerful Yakshas, blurring the lines between celestial beings. These genealogical accounts, while intricate, emphasize the expansive families of Yakshas and other demi-gods, whose lineages span epochs, sometimes eluding the scope of narration even in the course of a century.

In the hallowed verses of the Puranas, the Yaksha genealogies stand as a testament to the profound mythos that weaves together the cosmic dance of celestial beings, connecting the terrestrial and the celestial in a timeless tapestry of divine heritage.

A Culinary Tapestry: Meat, Liquor, and Aguru Scent:

The Mahabharata gives a vivid picture of the culinary preferences of Yakshas and Rakshasas, describing their food as a tantalizing mixture of meat and liquor. This culinary inclination hints at the distinct and sometimes enigmatic nature of these supernatural entities. Furthermore, aguru, a fragrant resin, finds favor among Yakshas, Räkshasas, and Nagas (serpent beings), offering a sensory dimension to their character.

Yakshas and Indra: The Opulent Repositories of Wealth:

In the grand tapestry of epics, Yakshas stand shoulder to shoulder with Indra, the king of gods, in their opulence and wealth. Kubera, the lord of Yakshas, emerges as a rival to Indra, sharing the role of being the bestower of prosperity. The transition from Indra raining gold in the epics to Kubera becoming the "norm of exhaustless wealth" highlights the dynamic nature of divine roles and hierarchies.

Attendants and Interconnections: Kubera, Kärttikeya, and More:

The Mahābhārata introduces a common list of attendants associated with Kubera and Kärttikeya, revealing an intriguing linkage between these divine entities. Dhanada, a title for Kubera's attendants, further emphasizes the inseparable connection between Yakshas and wealth. The interconnections among these celestial beings unfold a rich tapestry of divine relationships.

Yakshas and Devas: Interwoven Nature and Attitudes:

The interwoven nature and attitudes of Yakshas and Devas (gods) become apparent through shared designations and characteristics. The study explores the manifestation of tree-worship in the Yaksha cult, drawing parallels with elements of prehistoric and Vedic practices. The intertwining of tree-spirits, identified as both devatas and Yakshas, underscores their shared attributes and modes of worship.

Guhyakas: The Ancient Attendants of Kubera:

The Guhyakas, long-serving attendants of Kubera, wielded mysterious powers over hidden treasures. Their association with Kubera dates back to the Atharvaveda, where Rajatanabha, Kubera's son, is credited with milking the universe. Even in the age of Dharmasūtras, Yakshas and Guhyakas coexisted in the service of Kubera, with the latter maintaining their proximity to the lord of concealment. This intricate relationship persisted, and the Mahābhāshya of Patanjali refers to Kubera as Guhyākādhipati, solidifying the identity between Yakshas and Guhyakas in their service to Kubera.

Synthesis of Traits: Yakshas Inheriting from Guhyakas:

The synthesis of demonological traits among Yakshas and various demi-gods is a fascinating exploration. Guhyakas and Yakshas, despite their distinctive characteristics, found common ground in serving Kubera, concealing riches, and assuming desired appearances. The coexistence of Yakshas and Guhyakas within the realm of Kubera allowed for the seamless inheritance of lordship, creating a dynamic fusion of these celestial entities.

Comparative Study: Unraveling the Cosmic Tapestry:

A comparative study of Yakshas, Guhyakas, and other demi-gods unveils a cosmic tapestry where divine roles interweave and synthesize. The Guhyakas, with their role as guardians of hidden treasures, complement the multifaceted nature of Yakshas. This synthesis serves the dual purpose of defining Yakshas' placement within their celestial class and unraveling the evolutionary process that shaped the concept of Yaksha and its diverse attributes.

Yakshas' Evolution: Beyond Literary Explanations

The evolution of Yakshas' concept and being involves a multifaceted process, with literary works providing a simplified explanation rooted in religious biases. However, other sources, such as primitive religion and borrowings from different demi-gods, also played pivotal roles in shaping the enigmatic Yaksha.

Primitive Religion and Popular Tradition

The Yaksha cult, viewed as a relic of non-Aryan worship, carries echoes of primitive religion. Primitive societies often embraced nature-worship, animism, and ancestor-worship. Animism, defined as the belief in spirit-beings, contributed to the creation of numerous nature-spirits, including Yakshas associated with trees, mountains, and rivers.

Vedic Ambivalence and Non-Aryan Character

The earliest mention of Yaksha in the Rigveda portrays an intellectual concept rather than a deity embedded in primitive beliefs. The ambivalence in the Rigveda, defining Yakshas as both good and evil, may be attributed to the aversion and espousal by distinct classes of Aryans. The non-Aryan character of Yakshas is evident in their idol-worship, rituals, worshippers, and the status of Yaksha priests compared to Vedic priests.

Idolatry and Rituals: Indicators of Non-Aryan Affiliations

Vedic Aryans, primarily non-idolatrous, stood in contrast to the non-Aryan sections practicing idolatry. The association of Yakshas with idol-worship finds support in the earliest known historical sculptures—the Yaksha images. The ritualistic aspects of Yaksha-worship, including festivals and sacrificial offerings, further distinguish it from the cults of typical Vedic deities.

Yakshas: A Folk-Deity Journey

As Yakshas transitioned from pre-eminently folk-deities to beings accepted in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, their role shifted to catering to worldly needs rather than fulfilling higher spiritual objectives. Their acceptance in the religious spectrum marked a significant transformation.

Yaksha in Buddhism

Canonical Pali literature sheds light on the association of Yakshas with Kinnaras and Petas, offering a glimpse into the diverse cosmic ecosystem of ancient Indian mythology. The overlap between Yakshas and Kinnaras, particularly in their affinity for the art of singing, hints at shared traits among these supernatural beings. The classification of Kimpurushas or Kinnaras within the Yaksha-kula reveals the intricate hierarchy within the Yaksha realm.

In Buddhist Pali and Sanskrit texts, Yakkhas or Yakshas are portrayed as powerful demi-gods, often appearing either individually or as part of a larger class.

1. Individual Yakkhas and Chiefs:
• Alavaka: A prominent Yakkha who initially defied the Buddha but was eventually won over through proper answers to his questions. Alavaka became a protector of Buddhism.
• Suciloma: Challenged the Buddha but was converted after asking questions about the origin of various persuasions.
• Hemavata and Sātagiri, Suciloma and Kharaloma: Yakkhas mentioned in pairs or couples in Buddhist scriptures.
2. Yakkha Chiefs and Groups:
• Atānātiya Sutta: Mentions forty-one Yakkha-chiefs.
• Sutta Nipāta: Refers to twenty-eight Yakkha-chiefs.
• Jotika Setthi's Guards: Seven Yakkha guards named Yamakoli, Uppala, Vajirabāhu, Vajira, Kasakandha, Kațattha, and Disāpamukha.
3. Conversion Stories:
• Alavaka's Conversion: Initially resisting Buddha's interference in rituals, Alavaka was converted and later protected Buddhism.
• Suciloma's Conversion: Threatened Buddha and attempted to throw him beyond the Ganges but converted after questioning the Buddha about different persuasions.
• Other Malevolent Yakkhas: Some Yakkhas were converted to Buddhism by disciples, Bodhisattvas, or ancient kings. Examples include Khara, Ajakalapaka, and Kumbhakaņņa.
• Yakkhini Cetiya: The Mahāvamsa recounts the story of Prince Pandukābhaya defeating the Yakkhini Cetiya, who later assisted him in battles.
4. Nature of Conversion:
• Challenges and Threats: Many Yakkhas initially posed challenges or threats to Buddhism, including attempts to kill eminent disciples.
• Metaphysical Questions: The conversion often involved answering metaphysical questions posed by the Yakkhas.
• Transformation: Converted Yakkhas underwent a transformation from malevolence to adopting the Buddhist way of life.

Malevolent Yakkhas:

1. Rattākhi Yakkha: Caused the jarāroga (sickness leading to death) by his sight, resulting in the redness of eyes and death. Devoured victims after causing the affliction.
2. Älavaka: Put questions to ascetics, driving them mad if they failed to answer. Initially malevolent but converted to Buddhism.
3. Ajakalapaka: Consumed human flesh and blood. Exhibited malevolence in food habits.
4. Narada, Naradeva, Kumbhakanņa, Alavaka, Avaruddhaka, Kharadathika: Mentioned as fearful and evil Yakkhas.
5. Punnakala: Spread a pestilence called Pajjāraka in Abhayapura (Ceylon).

Charms and Protective Measures:

• Ātānāţiya Sutta: Considered a protective charm (paritta) against perils created by Yakkhas. Vessavana, a Yakkha, provided the Ālānāļiya wardrune (rakkhā) to save disciples from Yakkhas in remote forests.

Benevolent Yakkhas:

1. Kāļavela: Saved Prince Pandukābhaya during prenatal and infant stages from the evil machinations of his uncle.
2. Kunda: Protected a forest near the Koliyana village of Kundiya, benefiting the whole community.
3. Kuveņi: Helped Prince Vijaya kill invisible Yakkhas in Lankapura and Sirīsavatthu.
4. Mahāyakkhas: Forty-one Yakkhas named in the Aļānāţiya Sutta, willing to help holy men and followers of the Buddha. Prevented wicked Yakkhas from causing harm.
5. Kumbhira Yakkha: Transported King Bimbisāra to the courtesan of Ujjenī.
6. Yakkhas as Teachers: Some Yakkhas taught good morals and helped prevent prospective sinners from committing evil.
7. Yakkhas as Servants: Ran errands for human beings, such as the Yakkha in the Gagga Jataka who became a tax-gatherer for the king of Benaras.
8. Bestowal of Riches: Yakkhas granted riches and hidden treasures to human beings.

Yakkhas and Their Cetiyas:

• Yakkhas were associated with specific regions and places. Various Yakkhas had settlements and shrines in places like Gandhara, Patali, Alavi, Gaya, Rajagaha, Kāsi (Benaras), and others.

Worship of Yakkhas:

• Worshippers of particular Yakkhas are mentioned, such as the followers of Manibhadda and Punnabhadda in the Mahāniddesa. Certain ascetics and recluses were known to worship Yakkhas.

Prominent Yakkhas in Specific Regions:

1. Magadha:
• Manibhadda: Had a bhavana and cetiya in Magadha, known as Manimālaka.
2. Gaya:
• Suciloma and Kharaloma: Yakkhas associated with Gaya.
3. Rajagaha:
• Kumbhira: Yakkha of Vepulla mountain, also called Rājagahika due to his birth in Rajagaha.
• Indaka: Lived on the Indaküta near Rajagaha.
4. Benaras (Kāsi):
• Prominent place connected with various Yakkhas.
5. Other Cities and Regions:
• Kali Yakkhinī: Had a previous birth as one of the two wives of a householder. Converted by the Buddha, became a sotapanna. Chose a place outside a village for protection of crops, with eight salakabhatta established in her honor.
• Nārada Yakkha: Associated with Khemavatinagara.
• Kumbhakanna: Connected with Atavi.
• Vakkula: Associated with Sravasti.
• Udarya and Kunti Yakshis: Connected with Nandivardhan.
• Kuntinagara: Associated with Kashmir.
• Yakshis of Mathura: Alika, Venda, Meghā, and Timisikā.
• Uttarakuru: Legendary region with fabulous attributes, described as the abode of Yakkhas in the Aļānāțiya Sutta.

Yakshas in Jain Literature:

Classification of Yakshas:

1. Vyantara or Vāņamantara Gods: In Jain literary sources, Yakshas belong to the class of vyantara or väņamantara gods, along with other beings like Piśācas, Bhūtas, Rakshasas, Kinnaras, Kimpurushas, Mahoragas, and Gandharvas.
2. Yaksha Chiefs:
• Thirteen chiefs mentioned in Jain works include Pürņabhadra, Manibhadra, Svetabhadra, Haribhadra, Sumanobhadra, Vyātipatikabhadra, Subhadra, Sarvatobhadra, Manushyayaksha, Vanādhipati, Vanāhāra, Rūpayaksha, and Yakshottama.
• Kubera is identified as their lord, guarding the northern direction.
3. Prominent Yakshas:
• Manibhadra and Pürņabhadra: Described as two Indras or chiefs of the Yakshas, with significant roles in Jain cosmology.
• Island of Vajra: Assigned to Yakshas, divided into northern and southern sections ruled by Manibhadra and Pürņabhadra.
4. Habitat and Attributes:
• Yakshas had two types of habitats: bhavanapura and āvāsa.
• Identifying attribute: Vața tree.
• Their cities had beautiful fortresses and were surrounded by forests of Ašoka, Saptacchanda, Campaka, and Amra trees.
5. Roles of Yakshas:
• Benevolent: Generally depicted as protective deities, fulfilling the wishes of worshippers. The names of the Yaksha chiefs, ending with "bhadra," indicate their auspicious nature.
• Malevolent: Some Yakshas are portrayed as malevolent, capable of causing harm to humans.
• Converted: Instances of Yakshas being converted to goodness, emphasizing their transformative nature.
6. Protective Inclinations:
• Yakshas, including Kubera, are considered protective deities. Kubera is accepted as one of the lokapālas, and their benevolence is highlighted in their roles as guardians and fulfillers of wishes.
7. Guardianship Roles:
• Kubera and other Yakshas are associated with the gates of Jambūdvipa, serving as lords of these gates. They are accepted as guardian deities with various responsibilities.
8. Cosmological Significance:
• Jain cosmology incorporates Yakshas into its intricate system, recognizing their significance in the divine order.
9. Yakshas in Gate Names:
• Gates named Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta, and Aparajit are linked to gods in Jain cosmology. These gate names align with popular gods mentioned in the Arthaśāstra, possibly identifying them with Yakshas.

Evolution of Yaksha Sculptures:

First Phase (Mauryan):

1. Pataliputra - Mauryan Capital:
• Tradition of carving massive Yaksha figures began in Pataliputra, the Mauryan capital.
• Notable sculptures include two Yakshas in Patna and a Yakshini from Didarganj.
• Exhibits superb realization of the elemental force inherent in Yakshas.
2. Patna Yakshas:
• Excavated by B. Hamilton in 1812, identified as Yakshas by Chanda.
• Controversy initially surrounded their identification.
• Inscriptions on the statues: (i) Bhage achacha-ni vi ka and (ii) ya kha sa(?) rvata namdi.
3. Yakshi from Didarganj:
• Found in Didarganj, profusely adorned with ornaments.
• Holds a cauri (fly-whisk) in her right hand, possibly representing subdued nature.
• Comparable to the other two Yakshas from Patna.
  
4. Second Phase (Post Mauryan to 1st century BC):
• Older tradition of carving colossal statues continues vigorously.
• Relief art gains prominence with Yaksha and Yakshini figures on railing pillars at various sites.
• Free-standing images discovered at Parkham and Pawaya, including those of Manibhadra.
• Attributes associated with Yakshas, like the purse, become identifying symbols.

• 

  Parkham Yaksha mathura.
  

  
   

• The renowned Parkham village boasts one of the most celebrated relics of Yaksha worship—an imposing image that echoes the widespread ancient cult dedicated to these divine beings. This colossal depiction, characterized by both male and female manifestations, stands as a testament to the early utilization of stone in sculptural art. The iconographic brilliance of the Parkham Yaksha positions it as the venerable progenitor of subsequent Indian statuary.

  Carved in the round, the Yaksha assumes a commanding free-standing posture, exemplified by its colossal size. Its hands, one near the shoulder and the other akimbo, convey a subtle grace, while the draped upper scarf and dhoti, adorned with a torque, triangular necklace, and various ornaments, accentuate its majestic presence. The Yaksha's bold yet graceful expression, coupled with its impressive volume, seamlessly integrates into a frontal frame, solidifying its status as an exemplary masterpiece in the expansive realm of historic Indian art.

  An epigraph surviving from antiquity suggests that this monumental figure represents Manibhadra, the revered Yaksha king. The worship of Manibhadra, particularly cherished among merchants and householders, attests to the enduring significance of the Parkham Yaksha in the cultural tapestry of ancient India.

   
5. Besnagar Yakshi:
• Impressive image (height: 12 ft.) discovered at Besnagar.
• Tastefully adorned with ornaments, holds a bunch of flowers and a mango tree branch with fruits.
• Possible consort of Manibhadra with names like Devajani, Kundā, Bahu-putra, and Madanamañjarı.
6. Vidisha Region Yakshis:
• Two Yakshis from Vidisha region, one well-preserved, with similar styles in ornaments and hair.
• Bust of another Yakshi with different ornamentation and dvivenī hairstyle.
7. Mathura Region Yakshas:
• Several Yaksha images discovered in Mathura and nearby areas like Palwal and Bharatpur.
• Similarities in ornamentation, dress, and size observed in these sculptures.
• Attributes like a purse or flower-holding and distinctive features associated with different Yakshas.
• Presence of sword-bearing Yaksha images in Bharatpur and Sarnath.
8. Palwal Yaksha:
• Colossal bust of Yaksha carved in red sandstone found in Palwal, near Mathura.
• Depicts Kundalas, a torque, a crescent-shaped necklace, and four heavy wristlets.
• Wears a turban, with a raised right hand holding an object, possibly a flower.
9. Continuity and Regional Variations:
• Yaksha sculptures exhibit continuity in carving traditions.
• Regional variations observed in the styles, attributes, and details of ornaments among Yaksha images from different locations.

1. Yakshas in Rajasthan (Mahāmāyūri):
• Mahāmāyūri mentions five Yakshas in Rajasthan.
• Examples include Jambhāka of Marubhūmi and Kalmāshapāda of Vaira.
2. Iconographic Details from Sarnath:
• Sarnath Yaksha figures provide specific details.
• Ram-horned head reminiscent of a similar head from the Mathura Museum.
• Dwarfish stature illustrated in a bharavalhaka Yaksha with a raised pose.
3. Kosam Yaksha:
• Sculpture discovered in Kosam shows a Yaksha holding a purse, possibly a mace.
• Similarities with statues from Parkham and Pawaya.
4. Partabgarh Torso:
• Headless torso of Yaksha found in Partabgarh, deposited in the Allahabad Museum.
• Features include a raised right hand in abhaya mudra, a triangular necklace of eight strands, and an antariya tied below the navel.
5. Sopara Colossal Yaksha:
• Colossal Yaksha from Sopara shown with two attendants flanking him.
• Main figure's lower part is extant, details of drapery and vajra near the left foot.
6. Seated Yaksha Sculptures:
• Deviation from the common standing posture observed in some sculptures.
• A seated Yakshi discovered at Jhing-ka-Nagra near Mathura, worshipped as Manasadevi.
• Another seated Yaksha in the Allahabad Municipal Museum depicted with fierce features, holding a cup and hurling down a pig.
7. Bhita Colossal Sculpture:
• Colossal sculpture from Bhita in the Lucknow Museum depicts two figures standing back-to-back.
• Two additional figures on the sides with prominently shown heads.
• Figures portray the idea of guarding the four quarters of the consecrated place.
• Similarities with Kaušāmbi sculpture, including the depiction of a pig.
8. Identification Challenges:
• Identification of specific Yakshas in some sculptures remains uncertain.
• Mahāmāyuri refers to two Yakshas of Kaušāmbi - Anayasa and Anābhoga.
• Features like a figure holding a bottle possibly representing Kubera.
• Overall, a variety of Yaksha sculptures with distinct characteristics and poses.

Yaksha from pitalkhora 2 century b.c.

 Iconography Across Regions and Time Periods:

The visual representation of Yakshas is a testament to the cultural diversity and regional variations in ancient India. The Sarnath Yaksha figures, dated between the 2nd century BCE and the 5th century CE, showcase intricate details such as ram-horned heads and dwarfish stature. These sculptures not only capture the supernatural essence of Yakshas but also provide insights into the artistic expressions prevalent during different time periods.

Literary Encounters in Epics and Jataka Tales:

Yakshas play pivotal roles in ancient Indian epics, shaping moral and ethical dimensions. The Mahabharata recounts the story of a Yaksha testing Yudhishthira's wisdom through a series of questions, while the Ramayana features episodes where Yakshas interact with key characters, influencing the course of events. Jataka tales, narrating the previous lives of the Buddha, often incorporate encounters with Yakshas to convey moral lessons. These narratives become windows into the cultural and ethical values of ancient Indian societies.

Supernatural Powers and Limitations:

The supernatural realm of Yakshas is marked by both formidable powers and intriguing limitations. Yakshas' ability to raise illusions, predict the future, and control specific domains is showcased in various tales. However, their territorial powers are often confined to limited areas, and their efficacy is restricted during daylight hours. The concept of their omnivorous appetite, devouring anything in their view, adds to the fearsome reputation of Yakshas. The nuanced beliefs surrounding their dietary habits and the concept of Kavalāhāra highlight the multifaceted nature of their supernatural attributes.

Beauty and Monstrosity: Dual Nature of Yakshas:

The dual nature of Yakshas is vividly portrayed in their depictions as both beautiful and monstrous beings. Descriptions of Yakshas with golden appearances and enchanting features showcase their radiant side. However, composite forms and ghastly attributes, such as feet turned the wrong way or squinting eyes, contribute to their eerie and mysterious character. The unwinking eyes and shadowless nature become well-recognized attributes, reflecting the supernatural essence of Yakshas.

Material Attributes and Meritorious Items:

Yakshas' possession of specific material attributes and meritorious items adds depth to their cultural significance. Vajrapāņi's vajra, Kubera's gadāyudha, and the celestial attributes of Lokapālus become focal points in understanding Yaksha material culture. The belief in the potency of Yakshas' rings, ointments, and pitchers with magical properties offers insights into the ways these supernatural beings were perceived in ancient Indian societies.

Conclusion: Rediscovering Yakshas and Yakshinis

In conclusion, the exploration of Yakshas and Yakshinis in ancient Indian culture unfolds as a captivating journey through the realms of mythology, literature, and art. From their Vedic roots to elaborate genealogies in Puranas, from the literary encounters in epics and Jataka tales to the diverse iconography across regions, Yakshas and Yakshinis have etched their presence in the cultural consciousness of ancient India.