Mahajanaka Jataka tale.

Ajanta, situated in Maharashtra's Aurangabad District, stands as the epitome of ancient cave artistry. Comprising twenty-nine caves, this site showcases the evolution of Buddhist cave architecture and artistry. These caves were excavated in horse-shoe shaped bend of rock scarp nearly 76 m in height overlooking a narrow stream known as Waghora. The group of caves is inscribed by the UNESCO as World Heritage Monument in the year 1983.

· · Discovery by Accident:

Ajanta Caves, located in a mountainous region of Maharashtra, India, were discovered by accident in 1819.
John Smith, a British cavalry officer on a tiger hunt, noticed the mouth of a cave high above the Waghora River.

· Major Robert Gill's Reproductions (1844):

Major Robert Gill was commissioned by the Royal Asiatic Society in 1844 to create reproductions of the Ajanta cave paintings on canvas.
The canvases were displayed in the Indian Court of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, south London.

· Destruction by Fire (1866):

In 1866, a fire at Sydenham destroyed 23 of Gill's canvases, leaving only four surviving copies.

· Foundation of the Archaeological Survey of India (1861):

The Royal Cave Temple Commission, founded in 1848, led to the establishment of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1861.

From 1875 to 1885, Mr. Griffiths, the Principal of the Bombay School of Art, along with students, continued the work.
A monumental publication by the Government of India in 1896 resulted from these efforts.

· Continued Exploration:

Lady Herringham, Miss. Larcher, and Miss. Luke came from England and collaborated with Indian artists, including Nandalal Bose, Venkatappa, and S. N. Gupta, in the winters of 1909-10 and 1910-11.
The India Society, London, published a monograph in 1915.

· Jahanara Begum's Account:

Jahanara Begum, daughter of Shah Jahan, wrote about Ajanta in her memoir, emphasizing the painting school and the diverse influences from painters across regions, including Persia and China.
Hindus were particularly praised for their painting skills, as if they were still sitting in the cave-monastery of Ajanta, capturing the life of the outside world on its walls.

Types of Excavations:

Chaityagrhas: Places of worship for the Buddhist community.
Viharas: Monasteries where Buddhist monks resided.
Podhis: Water cisterns ingeniously designed to trap rainwater.
Rock-cut Benches and Seats: Additional features.

· Ajanta, initially believed to comprise 29 caves, experienced a transformative discovery with the unearthing of Cave No. 15a. The addition of this newly found cave, situated between Cave 15 and 16, brings the total count to 30 caves. However, despite this significant revelation, the official numbering system has not been updated to reflect the newfound cave. As a result, the enumeration still stands at 29, even though the physical count has increased to 30.

· Out of these, five (cave 9,10,19,26 and 29) are chaityagrihas and the rest are viharas.

· Chronologically and style wise these caves can be divided into two broad groups. Out of the 30 caves 6 caves belong to the earliest phase of Buddhism i.e. Hinayana. Caves 9 and 10 (chaityagrihas) and 8, 12, 13 and 30 (Viharas) belong this phase.

· The large chaitya-viharas of Ajanta, adorned with sculptures and paintings, provide a unique glimpse into the first-century BCE and fifth-century CE artistic prowess. Ajanta stands as the sole surviving example of paintings from these periods in the Deccan region. The absence of known dated inscriptions poses challenges in establishing precise chronology.

· Cave Nos. 10, 9, 12, and 13 belong to the early phase, while Cave Nos. 11, 15, 6 (upper and lower), and Cave No. 7 belong to an earlier phase than the late fifth century CE. The remaining caves span from the late fifth century CE to the early sixth century CE. The elaborately carved chaitya Cave Nos. 19 and 26 feature facades adorned with Buddha and Boddhisattva images, showcasing the apsidal-vault-roof variety.

· Cave No. 26, a substantial creation, boasts an entire interior hall carved with diverse Buddha images, with the Mahaparinibbana image as the centerpiece. The other caves follow the vihara-chaitya design, comprising a pillared veranda, a hall with pillars, and cells along the walls, with a main Buddha shrine on the back wall. Grand-sized shrine images characterize Ajanta, although some vihara caves like Cave Nos. 5, 14, 23, 24, 28, and 29 remain unfinished.

· Key patrons of Ajanta include Varahadeva (Cave No. 16), the prime minister of the Vakataka king Harishena; Upendragupta (Cave Nos. 17-20), the local king and feudatory of the Vakataka king Harishena; Buddhabhadra (Cave No. 26); and Mathuradasa (Cave No. 4) dedicated Cave 16 to the Buddhist Sangha.

· Noteworthy paintings have endured in Cave Nos. 1, 2, 16, and 17, showcasing typological variations and rhythmic lines characteristic of the fifth century CE.

· The early phase caves, particularly Cave Nos. 9 and 10, feature paintings from the first century BCE, marked by broad figures, linear arrangements, sharp lines, and limited colors. The evolution of paintings in tandem with cave excavation is evident in Cave Nos. 10 and 9, where Buddha figures differ from those in the fifth century CE. Subsequent developments are observed in the paintings of Cave Nos. 16, 17, 1, and 2, revealing variations in typology and stylistic elements.

· The paintings in Ajanta, marked by diverse skin colors, reflect a multicolored population. Cave Nos. 16 and 17 showcase precise and elegant painterly quality, distinct from the ponderous volume of sculptures. Figures exhibit rhythmic movements with brown thick lines used as contours, energetic and forceful. Cave Nos. 1 and 2 display orderly and naturalistic paintings, integrated seamlessly with cave sculptures.

· These paintings, rich in themes depicting events from the life of the Buddha, Jatakas, and Avadanas, represent a testament to the artistic and religious evolution at Ajanta. Notable paintings include Simhala Avadana, Mahajanaka Jataka, Vidhurpundita Jataka, and the captivating Chaddanta Jataka, each telling a story through artistry.

· In Ajanta paintings, a distinctive style emerges, marked by a blend of Indian and Hellenistic influences. The faces in these paintings exhibit unique characteristics that set them apart. Despite the unmistakable Indian physiognomy and settings, several features showcase a subtle influence of Hellenistic art:

· Brushstrokes:

The artist employs long, bold brushstrokes, contributing to a dynamic and expressive quality in the paintings.

· Perspective and Three-Quarter Profiles:

Unlike traditional Indian art, the use of perspective and three-quarter profiles is notable. This departure from the frontal view adds depth and dimension to the depictions.

· Eyes and Cheekbones:

Both eyes are depicted, capturing the play of light across large brown eyes and prominent cheekbones. This nuanced rendering of facial features suggests a keen attention to realism and light dynamics.
The realism captured in the faces depicted in the Ajanta paintings is striking, creating an impression that these are actual portraits of individuals from the ancient Satavahana period. In contrast to later images of bodhisattvas, there is a notable absence of idealization or otherworldliness in these paintings. Instead, the silent, often uncertain expressions on the faces of the Satavahana figures evoke a deep sense of realism and hypnotic allure.

· In Ajanta, a plethora of paintings showcases the depiction of women heroine, portraying various facets of feminine grace and beauty:

Black Princess, Cave 1:

This painting in Cave 1 captures the essence of feminine allure with its free-flowing lines, subtle body contours, a slight tilt of the face, and expressive eyes, demonstrating the artist's mastery and brush control.

Lady at Her Toilet, Cave 17:

In Cave 17, a notable painting depicts a noblewoman attended by two maids during her toilette. The queen, dominant in the scene, is devoid of upper garments, while the maids are fully dressed, creating a visual contrast.

Dying Princess, Cave 16:

Cave 16 features the poignant portrayal of a dying princess experiencing the pain of separation from her lover, often identified as Nanda and Sundari. The emotional depth in this painting reflects the artist's ability to convey complex narratives.

Lady with Two Toes, Cave 2:

An extraordinary portrayal in Cave 2 showcases a woman standing near a pillar, turning her left leg, and adorned with ornaments. The artist's attention to detail, from the tilted neck to the intricate body gestures, adds to the charm of this depiction.

Lady at Her Swing, Cave 2:

This painting in Cave 2 captures a lady on a swing, showcasing the artist's skill in rendering graceful movement and capturing a leisurely moment with finesse.

Apsaras in Cave 17:

Apsaras, divine celestial beings, are portrayed in Cave 17 with full-rounded breasts, broad hips, and divine gestures. These heavenly beings are adorned with elaborate hairstyles, rich necklaces, and earrings, embodying ideal beauty and grace.

· Technical Aspects:

The technical aspects of the paintings, including the choice of pigments and the use of lime mortar, reflect a level of sophistication that hints at external influences. These technical details may reveal a fusion of artistic techniques from diverse cultural sources.

· The famous Padmapani and Vajrapani in Cave No. 1 underscore the prevalence of these images in Ajanta, with Cave No. 1 hosting the best-preserved paintings. Some figures in Cave No. 2 exhibit affiliations with Vengi sculptures, while influences from the Vidarbha sculptural tradition are also discernible in certain sculptures.

· Bodhisatva Padmapani, Bodhisatva Vajraapani, the Black princess, the dying princess,renunciation of Siddhartha, Buddha and Yashodhara are the master pieces of Ajanta paintings.

CAVE 1:

Monastery dated to 4th – 5th centuries A.D.
Squarish, with a hall, 14 cells, vestibule, sanctum sanctorum, open verandah, and courtyard.
Features a seated Buddha in dharmacakrapravartana mudra.
Depicts Jatakas and scenes like the temptation of Mara.

· Padmapani and Vajrapani in Ajanta Cave No. 1

· Nestled within the sacred confines of Ajanta Cave No. 1, a visual symphony unfolds on the back wall of the interior hall—a masterpiece that transcends the late fifth century CE. This revered painting, a testament to artistic brilliance, captures the divine grace of Bodhisattvas Padmapani and Vajrapani.

· Padmapani Bodhisattva: A Lotus-Bearer's Grace In this painting, Padmapani, the bearer of the lotus, graces the canvas with celestial elegance. The late fifth-century depiction reveals meticulous soft modelling, where outlines seamlessly merge with body volume, invoking a profound three-dimensional effect. Large shoulders and a gently bent posture create a mesmerizing movement in the sacred picture space. The adorned crown, beaded necklace, and finely detailed rendering add regal splendor. Padmapani's right hand cradles a lotus, while the left extends gracefully into space, surrounded by smaller celestial figures. The artist's delicate and rhythmic lines define contours, embodying a harmony of form and spirituality.

Bodhisattva Padmapani, in ajanta, cave_1, India

· Vajrapani Bodhisattva: Thunderbolt Wielding Majesty Adjacent to Padmapani, Vajrapani stands with thunderbolt-wielding majesty. This powerful Bodhisattva, painted with the same pictorial finesse, holds a vajra in the right hand, adorned with a crown echoing divine authority. Mirroring Padmapani's solidity, Vajrapani's depiction exudes strength and spiritual prowess. The rich palette of light red, brown, green, and blue hues converges to create a vivid tapestry that captures the essence of enlightenment.

· Narrative Splendors: Mahajanak Jataka and More Within Cave No. 1, these Bodhisattvas also assume roles as shrine guardians, contributing to the dynamic iconographic arrangement found in Ajanta's various caves. The Mahajanak Jataka, an expansive narrative painting, unfolds on an entire wall, showcasing intricate storytelling.

The first cave, constructed between 500 AD and 625 AD, marks the pinnacle of artistic expression. Some paintings date back to the Vakataka Empire's last years and the Chalukya kings' reign.
The cave, designed as a monastery with 14 chambers and sixty-four pillars, houses a colossal statue of Lord Buddha in the Dharmachakrapravartana posture, surrounded by disciples and animals.
Frescoes adorn the cave, featuring notable paintings such as 'Story of Shiva Jataka,' 'Bajrapani,' 'Padmapani Bodhisattva,' 'Maravijaya,' 'Nagaraja Shankhapala,' 'Miracle of Shravasti,' 'Dance performance,' 'Penance of snake on the hill of ants,' and 'Decoration of lotuses and swans in the roofs.'

Shivi Jataka: Sacrifice for a Pigeon:

Upon entering the main door, the left wall presents the story of 'Shivi Jataka,' where King Shiva, born as Bodhisattva, sacrifices his flesh to save a pigeon from an eagle.
The damaged picture portrays the pigeon on the king's thigh and King Shiva standing near a scale, illustrating his readiness to offer flesh equal to the pigeon's weight.

Story of Nand and Sundari: A Tapestry of Emotions

In the heart of the cave's narrative unfolds the poignant "Story of Nand and Sundari," a vivid tapestry of emotions and events captured in art:

Scene in the Pavilion:

The depiction showcases a pavilion where a sorrowful queen engages in conversation with another woman.
A maid, carrying makeup, stands nearby, and a servant conveys somber news received from the gatekeeper.
The gatekeeper, with a mournful expression, stands at the hermitage door.

Distraught Beautiful Woman:

On the left side, a portrayal captures the anguish of a beautiful woman grappling with the pain of separation.
Her friends empathetically attempt to alleviate her distress, contributing to the lively and emotionally charged scene.
The drawing exhibits softness in hand gestures and hair makeup, yet a certain heaviness in body structure.

Mahajanak Jatak:

The left wall unfolds the narrative of "Mahajanak Jatak" in multiple scenes.
Prince Mahajanak strategizes a plan with his mother for a military campaign, with attendants surrounding them in various postures.
A unique scene of 'Nritya Vadan' emerges, featuring a crowned dancer and female singers playing musical instruments.
Scenes of the army's march, ocean crossing, and boats breaking follow the prince's disillusionment and renunciation.

Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva:

At the center of the left wall, an excellent depiction of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva emanates immense kindness and universal compassion.
The painter employs the law of centrality, emphasizing the Bodhisattva's benevolence.

Nagraj Sabha:

Within the same cave, the left wall features the captivating "Nagraj Sabha" showcasing dance, courtly activities, and royal splendor.
The graceful Chavardharini adds allure behind the royal couple.

Nagraj Shankhpala Jatak:

The story unfolds of Bodhisattva's birth in the womb of Nagraj Shankhpala after enjoying the glory of Naglok and choosing detachment.
Ramani is depicted in an emotionally engaged posture, listening to the sermon with intensity.

Champey Jatak:

The right wall narrates the "Champey Jatak," where the Bodhisattva, born in the womb of Champeya Naga, expresses gratitude to a king.
Scenes include the snake charmer's show, the king's intervention, and the gratitude expressed by Champey in Nag Lok.

Iranian Daitya:

A captivating portrayal in the cave is that of the 'Iranian Daitya,' believed by some to be the Persian Emperor Khusru Parvez's ambassador who came to the royal court of the Chalukya Emperor Pulakesian II.
Adorned with garlands and holding a lotus flower, this figure exudes a Gupta period's Vishnu personality imprint.
The depiction reflects Gupta artistry, with beautifully rendered shoulders and arms using minimal lines, showcasing the strength and flow of lines.
Princess Yashodhara, guards with swords, and a maid identified as 'Parseen' (referred to as 'Black Princess' by Western writers) are depicted.

Black Princess

The "Black Princess" in the Ajanta paintings is a masterpiece, showcasing the artist's mastery with free-flowing lines, subtle body contours, and expressive eyes. Despite any damage, the painting's beauty is evident, featuring a lyrical quality and a heavenly feel. The sophisticated use of earthly colors adds to its visual appeal. The princess, depicted with dark skin, delicate features, and regal attire, remains unidentified, sparking theories of South Indian royalty or a foreign visitor. This artwork, renowned for its artistry and cultural significance, provides a captivating glimpse into the ancient world and diverse influences on Indian art.

Mar Vijay (Mar - The Army of Kamadeva):

Mar Vijay, depicting the trials faced by Lord Buddha before attaining enlightenment, is another renowned painting.
Tempting figures representing the army of Kamadeva try to distract Buddha in various ways, but he remains unaffected.
A red dwarf with a sword attempts to scare Buddha, who sits in meditation with an unwavering spirit.
The background features the Bodhi tree under which Buddha attained enlightenment.
The psychological image of Lord Buddha is vividly captured, showcasing fearlessness, peace, and the playful charm of beauties.

Miracle of Shravasti:

Inscribed on the right wall of the inner chamber, the 'Miracle of Shravasti' recounts Buddha's miracles to establish himself in the line of acharyas.
One miracle involves Buddha manifesting in innumerable forms, all seated on lotuses.
A depiction of a 'Bull fight' on the upper part of a wall bracket exhibits immense movement, gracefulness, and strength.

CAVE 2:

Monastery dated to the first of the sixth century A.D.

· Seated Buddha in dharmacakrapravartana mudra is enshrined in the sanctum, the side sub-shrines contain two Yaksha figures (popularly known as Sankhanidhi and Padmanidhi) to the east and Hariti & her consort Pancika to the right.

· Prominent carvings within the cave feature the goddess Hariti, a Buddhist deity. Originally known as a demoness associated with smallpox and a devourer of children, Hariti underwent a transformation through the Buddha's influence. She is now revered as a guardian goddess, particularly associated with fertility, ensuring smooth childbirth, and safeguarding infants.

· A fresco from the 5th century in this cave depicts a school scene, portraying children in the front rows attentively listening to the teacher, while those in the back row appear distracted and engaged in other activities.

· Extensively painted cave is famous for the ceiling paintings. The Jatakas painted here are Vidhurapandita & Ruru and miracle of Sravasti; Ashtabhaya Avalokitesvara; the dream of Maya.

Construction Period and Paintings:

Cave Number Two, believed to be built between 500 and 550 AD, possibly extended into the seventh century, hosts a rich array of paintings.
The major paintings include Mahahansa Jataka, Dream of Maya Devi, Birth of Buddha, Miracle of Shravasti, Purnavadan Jataka, Story of Vidur Pandit, Kshantivadi Jataka, Apocalypse, Begging for Life, Poojaartini, and the Sermon of the Golden Deer.

Mahahansa Jataka: Swan Sermon:

On the right side of the cave, the Mahahansa Jataka depicts the Bodhisattva in the form of a swan giving a sermon to the king and queen of Banaras.
Queen Khema had captured the swan-like Bodhisattva, but later the swan was released. The unique notation of interval-inflection in the picture adds to its visual appeal.

Maya Devi's Dream: Symbolic Imagery:

'Maya Devi's Dream' is considered one of the finest paintings. It portrays Maya Devi's bedroom where she dreams of a white elephant entering her womb.
The artist skillfully uses symbolic imagery, incorporating the white round shape or Pratap Punj to convey the story of the dream.

Buddha's Birth: Family Discussion:

The painting depicting Buddha's birth showcases Mahamaya and Shuddhodhan discussing the momentous event.
Slaves and maids surround them, their body postures beautifully captured. Two Brahmins are also present in the scene.

Ramani with Two Left Thumbs: Mystical Figure:

On the right side, a magnificent figure of a Ramani adorned with jewels is portrayed, supported by a pillar, with a left leg bent naturally and resting on the pillar.
The upper part of the body leans on the pillar, creating a soft tableau. There is debate about the identity of this figure; some consider it 'Mahaprajpati Devi,' while 'Shri Raikrishna Das' identifies it as 'Vimata of Lord Buddha.' The figure is also known as 'The Lady with Two Left Toes' due to a painting error.

Lighted Heaven:

Lord Buddha is majestically depicted sitting on the throne of heaven in Dharmachakra Mudra, surrounded by a radiant beam of light illuminating his face.
The intricate carvings of Capricorn adorn both sides, capturing Lord Buddha's contemplative gaze. Gods standing nearby gaze at him with deep respect, showcasing intricate postures and body language.

Maya Devi and the Stolen Newborn:

The next scene unfolds with Maya Devi standing in a garden, holding a branch of the Sal tree. Indra, with a square cap and three eyes, has taken away the newborn baby.
The depiction vividly portrays a crowd of beggars outside the garden, adding depth and detail to the narrative.

Apocalypse:

An old monk stands with the support of a wood, expressing a profound message through silent visuals.
His worried posture and expression convey a sense of immense experience, depression, and helplessness, symbolizing the impermanence of everything.

Kshantivadi Jataka: Pleading for Mercy:

This painting captures the essence of Kshantivadi Jataka, where Bodhisattva preaches forgiveness. The scene depicts a two-legged king on a throne, holding a sword, and a remorseful dancer lying at his feet.
The dancer's body language, the fear among the women, and the courtiers' expressions showcase the emotional depth of the narrative.

Story of Vidur Pandit Jataka: Dynamic Equestrian Scene:

The scene of Vidur Pandit's ride features dynamic depictions of horses and foot soldiers carrying naked swords, adding energy to the narrative.

Love Story of Purnak Irandwati:

On the right side of the cave, the depiction of the 'Love story of Purnak Irandwati' showcases Princess Irandvati swinging on a garden swing.
The princess's youthful exuberance and dreamy gaze are captured beautifully, emphasizing her passion, virginity, and beauty.

CAVE 3:

Incomplete monastery with only the preliminary excavation of a pillared verandah.

CAVE 4:

Squarish monastery dated to the first half of the sixth century A.D.
Largest at Ajanta, with an exquisitely sculpted door frame and traces of paintings.

CAVE 5:

Unfinished monastery with a richly carved door frame and important female figures on makaras.

CAVE 6:

Double storeyed monastery with Buddha in preaching attitude in both shrines.
Features the Miracle of Sravasti and Temptation of Mara, along with sculptural depictions of Buddha.
Cave number six offers pictures reminiscent of the nineteenth cave, presenting skilled depictions of a 'beautiful woman with well-groomed hair' and 'gatekeepers.'
The artistry in these paintings reflects a supreme beauty, showcasing the culmination of artistic expression in these later-created caves.

CAVE 7:

Monastery with a sanctum sanctorum, oblong open hall, and eight cells.
Houses Buddha in preaching attitude and sculptural panels like the Miracle of Sravasti.

CAVE 8:

Unfinished monastery at the lowest level, possibly the earliest among the monasteries.

CAVE 9:

Exhibits wooden architectural styles and two layers of paintings.

· Cave number nine, known for its spiritual significance, is a Chaitya cave designed as a place of worship for Buddhist monks. Despite its construction in the second century BC, the cave showcases paintings associated with both Hinayana and Mahayana sects, suggesting a prolonged construction period until the third or fourth century AD.

· The cave features a robust stone stupa adorned with three umbrellas and has a unique horseshoe-shaped excavation. With twenty-three pillars, the cave's structure highlights meticulous planning.

· Notably, "Mr. Griffiths" uncovered a significant mural beneath plaster, displaying a seated woman, marking it as the cave's oldest artwork.

· One prominent mural in the cave depicts Stupa Puja, portraying a group of about sixteen individuals, likely priests, proceeding towards the stupa. The artwork captures details of their attire, including braided turbans with prominent pearls, heavy ornaments, and musical instruments like Shehnai, Cymbals, and Mridang.

· Another captivating depiction showcases a ceremony where a king or noble is seen presenting a Chaitya to the Sangha. The cave also features Nagpurusha, represented by two figures seated on a mountain cliff, engaged in conversation, with flying nymphs adding a dynamic element to the scene.

· A separate mural illustrates cowherds chasing animals, emphasizing the liveliness and movement of the depicted animals through skillful lines. The paintings in cave number nine distinguish themselves from Gupta period art by employing only four colors – black, yellow, green, and purple. Figures exhibit similar faces and postures, with a notable absence of facial expressions and expressive eyes.

· The meticulous detailing in the paintings extends to the depiction of various trees with distinct leaves, as well as flowers and fruits. Animals and birds are systematically portrayed, showcasing the painter's keen observational skills. The cave's pillars feature Buddha figures, while shepherd scenes adorn the walls, creating a unique blend of religious and pastoral imagery.

CAVE 10:

Stupa and Inscription:

Inside the cave, there is a stupa, and an inscription on the outer wall confirms it as a Chaitya Griha.
The inscription indicates that the cave was built during the Andhra Satavahana period, approximately 200 years before Christ.

Paintings and Time Periods:

Paintings from two distinct periods are discovered within the cave.

o On the right wall, there are depictions from an earlier period, including scenes from Sama Jataka and Chhadant Jataka.

Chhadant Jatak Story:

o The Chhadant Jatak, a popular subject among Ajanta artists, is prominently featured in this cave.

o The narrative unfolds with depictions of elephants engaged in water sports within a dense forest.

· Flora and Fauna Depictions:

o The paintings vividly portray the environment, showcasing various trees such as banyan, sycamore, and mango.

o Chhadant elephant, a central figure, is depicted either offering lotus flowers to elephants with his trunk or navigating encounters with a python.

· Hunter Encounter and Surrender:

· Hunters enter the forest, and in a remarkable scene, the Bodhisattva assumes the form of Chhadanta and willingly surrenders before them.

· This episode showcases the Bodhisattva's compassion and selflessness, even in the face of potential danger.

· Hunters's Journey to Kashiraj's Inner City:

· The narrative unfolds with the Hunters reaching the inner city of Kashiraj in a subsequent scene.

· Queen Subhadra, who was an elephant in her previous life and harbors jealousy towards Chhadant elephant, orders the cutting of elephant's tusks.

· Queen Subhadra's Reaction:

· Queen Subhadra witnesses the tusks being carried on handcarts and faints in distress.

· The act of cutting off the tusks is rooted in the queen's jealousy, adding a dramatic element to the storyline.

· King's Support and Maids' Reactions:

· The king provides support to Queen Subhadra during this distressing moment.

· Four maids stand behind, visibly nervous, while one steps forward to offer additional support.

· Procession Scene - King's Entourage:

· On the left wall, a captivating depiction of a procession unfolds.

· The procession involves the king and his entourage on a journey to worship the Bodhi tree and the stupa.

· Composition of the Entourage:

· The entourage includes footmen at the front, armed horsemen at the rear, and the king surrounded by eight women walking briskly.

· Two women carry an ashes casket, while another woman bears an urn of holy water.

· Symbolism in the Artwork:

· The depiction of open breasts on the women and the impatience on their faces add a layer of symbolism and emotion to the artwork.

· Unfortunately, the lower part of the picture has been damaged, leaving some elements of the scene incomplete or lost to time.

Sama Jatak Story:

· The cave features a depiction of 'Sama Jatak,' resembling the narrative of Shravan Kumar.

· The story revolves around a dark-skinned youth named 'Shyam,' who, like Shravan Kumar, serves his blind parents. Kashiraj fatally wounds him with an arrow.

· Divine Intervention:

· In a unique twist, a goddess revives 'Shyam' after hearing the lamentations of his elderly parents.

· The painting captures the beauty of Shyam's figure, bearing a burden on his shoulders, and vividly conveys the pain in the figures of his parents.

· Poignant Elements:

· The portrayal of a running deer adds a poignant touch to the overall composition.

· The paintings serve as a beautiful example of mature compositions, seamlessly blending emotion, drawing, color, elegance, and pictorial elements.

Buddha Statues on Pillars:

Buddha statues are intricately carved on the pillars within the cave.
The influence of the Gandhara style is evident in the attire of the Buddha figures, capturing the distinctive features of that artistic tradition.

· Light Beam and Symbolism:

A notable feature is the depiction of a light beam or bright circle behind the head of the Buddha statues.
This element adds a symbolic dimension, possibly representing divine illumination or spiritual enlightenment associated with the Buddha.

· Inscription and Dating:

An inscription dating back to the fifth century is discovered under the fifth pillar on the right side of the cave.
This inscription provides a valuable historical marker, allowing scholars to estimate the creation date of the Buddha figures to be around the fifth century.

CAVE 11:

Monastery dated to the beginning of the fifth century A.D.
Consists of a hall with six cells, a long bench, a pillared verandah, and a sanctum sanctorum.

· Elephant Story and Nand's Separation:

The eleventh cave hosts a captivating depiction of the elephant story, showcasing Bodhisattva's compassionate sacrifice for hungry travelers.
Another poignant picture portrays the emotional turmoil of Queen Sundari in separation from Nand, her husband and Buddha's brother.

· Children and Women at the Lake:

Within this cave, a charming scene unfolds as children and women bathe in the lake on the dam's banks.
The painting also features the portrayal of a demon, adding an intriguing element to the narrative.

CAVE 12:

Hinayana monastery with a collapsed front wall and chaitya window motifs on cell frontage.

CAVE 13:

Small monastery from the first phase with an astylar hall and seven cells.

CAVE 14:

Unfinished monastery above Cave 13 with beautifully depicted sala bhanjikas on the doorway.

CAVE 15:

Monastery with an astylar hall, eight cells, antechamber, sanctum sanctorum, and a pillared verandah.
Originally painted with sculptural depictions of Buddha.

CAVE 15A:

Smallest excavation with a central astylar hall and chaitya window patterns.

CAVE 16:

Monastery with central hall, 14 cells, vestibule, and sanctum sanctorum.
Notable paintings include the conversion of Nanda, Miracle of Sravasti, and various Jataka stories.

· Cave Number Sixteen is centrally located among all caves and offers a view of "Mapta Kund," the source of the Baghora river.

· Entrance Details:

The entrance is adorned with engravings of two elephants, providing a grand welcome to visitors.

· Nagraj Statue:

Ascending the left-side stairs, visitors encounter an enthroned statue of Nagraj, creating a significant focal point within the cave.

· Dating and Inscription:

Inscriptions on the left wall reveal that the cave was constructed between 475 AD and 500 AD by Varahadeva, a minister of Vakataka King Harisena.
The cave was donated as an abode for Tapodhana ascetics.

· Historical Connections:

The Vakatakas, with family ties to Nagas and Guptas, maintained close relationships.
Notable marriages include Padmavati, daughter of Naga king Bhavanag, marrying Vakataka Pravarasena, and Prabhavati, daughter of Chandragupta II, marrying Vakataka king Rudrasena II.

· Buddhist Patronage:

Vakataka rulers and ministers were patrons of Buddhism, leading to the development of Buddha statues during this period.
The cave houses a large Buddha statue in Pralambpad posture, known as 'Chaityamandiram.'

· Paintings and Jataka Stories:

The cave boasts fourteen well-preserved paintings depicting the life of Buddha and Jataka stories.
Themes include 'Dream of Maya Devi,' 'Sermon,' and 'Initiation of Nanda,' alongside Jatakas like 'Hasti Jataka' and 'Maha Ummagga Jataka.'

· Architectural Features:

The cave contains twenty pillars, and its ceiling work follows the tradition of Sanchi.
High-quality artistic scenes and intricate details are evident throughout the cave.

· Magnificent Depiction:

The most striking image in the cave is the portrayal of 'Buddha's sermon,' where Buddha descends into the heavenly heaven for his final birth.
Although some figures and facial expressions of Buddha are damaged, the devotees' figures remain relatively intact, portraying concentration, devotion, and humility.

· Sujata's Story:

'Sujata's Story' is painted on the right wall, featuring a beautiful depiction of cows and geometric lattice designs reminiscent of Gupta-period stone sculptures.

Dying Princess: A Depiction of Compassion

The most remarkable painting in this cave is the 'Maranasanna Rajkumari' (Dying Princess), an epitome of compassion. The scene unfolds with poignant details:

· Princess's Position:

o A noblewoman lies on a high seat, her head hanging, half-open eyes, and limbs in a relaxed state.

o The portrayal captures the imminent sense of mortality and vulnerability.

· Attending Maids:

o One maid supports and lifts the princess, showcasing a desperate attempt to provide comfort.

o Another maid observes, hand on her chest, attentively checking the princess's pulse, reflecting the gravity of the situation.

· Expressions of Sorrow:

o The serious facial expression of the dying princess conveys a profound fear of death.

o A third maid fans herself, suggesting the emotional intensity of the moment.

· Hopeless Crows:

o Crows sitting on the ground below symbolize despair, having given up hope on the princess's life and expressing their grief through cries.

o One woman in the group hides her face while weeping, amplifying the emotional depth of the scene.

· Old Man with Crown:

o An old man, wearing a white cap, stands at the door holding a crown.

o This character might be significant in the narrative, potentially conveying a message or representing a connection to the dying princess.

· Identity of the Princess:

o The princess in question is Sundari, the wife of Buddha's brother Nand.

o Nand, upon becoming a monk, sent his crown to Sundari through a servant, indicating a transformative moment in their lives.

· Crying Figures:

o In the group, an old man sits behind a pillar, and a woman with a Parsi cap holds a covered pot, possibly containing medicine.

Another woman, with distinctive hair resembling a negro, gestures in a manner that suggests a conversation or exchange of information.

Nand Kumar's Renunciation: A Tale of Compassion

· Buddha's Alms and Nanda's Tonsure:

o The painting depicts a scene from Saundaranand's poem, where Buddha visits Nanda's house in Kapilvastu.

o Despite Nanda's initial reluctance, Buddha persuades him to become a monk against his wishes and enters the Sangha.

o A barber is shown cutting Nanda's hair as part of his tonsure, symbolizing his renunciation.

· Nanda's Dispassion and Transformation:

o Nanda, initially consumed by his wife's love, becomes dispassionate after being mocked by fellow monks.

o The image shows Nanda sitting in a pavilion, signifying his transformative journey within the Sangha.

· Journey through Beautiful Worlds:

o Buddha takes Nanda on a celestial journey, showcasing scenes of beautiful worlds along the sky path.

o The narrative reflects the spiritual guidance and transformative experiences within the monkhood.

· Meeting of Ajatashatru and Buddha:

o A grand scene portrays the meeting between Ajatashatru and Buddha in the mango forest.

o Ajatashatru, distressed after killing his father, seeks solace and inspiration in Buddha's sermon.

· Royal Procession:

o The image captures a royal procession with decorated elephants, soldiers, and musicians accompanying King Ajatashatru.

· Four Famous Scenes:

o On the right wall, four scenes (dead body, old man, monk, and Vrishamatadan) depict pivotal moments that lead Buddha to dispassion.

· Buddha's School and Archery Practice:

o Scenes within the cave include 'Buddha's School,' beautifully portraying children's play.

o Nearby, archery practice scenes add diversity to the thematic representation.

· Buddha's Hypnosis and Leaving Home:

o A scene depicting 'Buddha's hypnosis' and another showing Buddha leaving his home, both reflecting critical stages in Buddha's life.

· Maya Devi's Dream:

o The Dream of Maya Devi is illustrated with only the legs of Maya Devi remaining in the figure.

o Maharaj Shuddhodhan and Maya Devi engage in thoughtful discussions while maids surround Maya Devi, depicted in beautiful postures.

· Symbolism in 'Buddha's Birth':

o Scenes related to Buddha's birth include symbolism of seven lotus flowers, representing the story of Buddha taking seven steps immediately after birth.

o Lord Buddha is depicted as a child in this narrative.

· Various Depictions:

o Other paintings like 'Sujata's Kheer,' 'Buddha with alms bowl in the streets of Rajgriha,' and 'Gautam's first penance in Ashadh' add richness to the artistic and narrative tapestry of the cave.

Elephant Story: Selfless Sacrifice for Others' Well-being

Bodhisattva's Previous Birth as an Elephant:

The painting illustrates a story from the past where the Bodhisattva manifested as a powerful elephant living alone in a wild forest.

Compassion in Action:

The Bodhisattva, in elephant form, hears a painful sound and discovers hungry and thirsty travelers in need.
Moved by compassion, the elephant sacrifices itself to provide sustenance to the travelers by jumping from a hill near a lake.

Scene Depiction:

The picture portrays hungry travelers pointing towards the white elephant standing on the hill, showcasing their desperate situation.
In the second part of the scene, the dead elephant lies on the ground, and travelers are shown removing meat with sharp knives.
Some individuals are depicted roasting and eating the meat, while others fetch water from the lake.

Overwhelmed by Sacrifice:

The travelers, upon discovering the sacrifice made by the elephant, are overwhelmed with gratitude and realization of its selfless act.

Maha Ummagga Jataka: Wisdom in Resolving Disputes

Child Named 'Mahosamb':

The painting depicts a child named 'Mahosamb,' possessing divine power, resolving serious disputes with wisdom and intelligence.

Maternal Dispute Resolution:

The story involves a dispute over the real mother of the child.
To determine the true mother, a proposal is made to cut the child into two pieces, and the real mother willingly gives up her rights to save the child's life.

Resolution of Chariot Ownership Dispute:

Another scenario involves the resolution of a dispute regarding the ownership of a chariot.
The child, Mahosamb, showcases wisdom in resolving this issue.

Detecting Yarn Thief:

In a separate incident, when a woman steals a ball of yarn from another woman, Mahosamb cleverly asks about the object on which the ball was wrapped to identify the thief.

CAVE 17: A Jewel Among Ajanta Caves

Cave Overview:

Cave Number Seventeen, a Chaitya cave, is exceptionally well-preserved and credited to Mandaladhish, a devotee of King Harisena from the Vakataka dynasty.

Painting Themes:

Dr. Burgess describes around twenty-one scenes in this cave, emphasizing Jataka stories more than Buddha's life, all of which are remarkably preserved.

Jataka Stories Depicted:

Notable Jataka stories include Vyagroghamrig Jataka, Chhadant Jataka, Hasti Jataka, Mahakapi Jataka, Matroposh Jataka, Shivi Jataka, Sama Jataka, Vessantar Jataka, Mahahansa Jataka, Mahip Jataka, Sinhala Avadana, Machh Jataka, Mahasutasoma Jataka, depicting Buddha's order to avoid eight sins, Nilgiri episode, well of life, Maitreya and Manushi Buddha, Miracle of Shravasti, Buddha's sermon to the Sangha, and flying Gandharva Apsaras.

Matriposha Jatak:

The poignant depiction of 'Matriposha Jatak' portrays Lord Buddha incarnated as a white elephant separated from his mother in Kashiraj's captivity. The final scene touching depicts the white elephant caressing its blind mother with its trunk.

Hasti Jatak:

The 'Hasti Jatak' scene, akin to Cave Number Sixteen, features an ancient inscription in dark pink on a window, adding a unique touch to the narrative.

Vessantar Jataka:

The story of Vessantar Jataka unfolds with Bodhisattva King seated on a pedestal, displaying a compassionate hand gesture. The depiction showcases the royal family's astonishment at a beggar's request.
The king, known for his charity, faces the monk's plea to offer his prince son for a yajna. The poignant scenes capture the emotional turmoil and departure of Kumar Vessantar and his family.

Market Scene and Kumar's Sacrifice:

Scenes include Kumar Vessantar giving away his chariot and horses to monks and later, his sons begging for alms.
The return of Kumar Vessantar is depicted, featuring a powerful and graceful portrayal of characters, including the queen wearing transparent attire.

Artistic Detail:

Noteworthy artistic details include the monk's features, facial expressions, and the depiction of several hundred faces showcasing a diverse range of beautiful and ugly aspects in various scenarios like beauty parties, horse riders, coronation, and the battle of Dakanis.

Mahahansa Jataka: The Golden Swan's Teachings

Capture and Teaching Scene:

The Mahahansa Jataka is depicted in two scenes. In the first, a fowler captures two swans from Padmasar, and the swans, expressing fear, attempt to fly away. The painter skillfully portrays the expressive nature of the swans.
In the second scene, the captured swan sits on a throne and the Bodhisattva swan preaches to the king and queen in the royal court of Varanasi, gaining international fame for its color scheme.

Story Overview:

The story revolves around Lord Buddha incarnating as a golden swan. Queen Khem of Kashiraj dreams of golden swans, leading to the capture of Buddha in the form of a golden swan and a handsome swan.
Kashiraj listens to the teachings of the golden swan, eventually seating Lord Buddha on the throne and receiving wisdom from him.

Rahul Surrender: A Mother's Sacrifice

Buddha Seeking Alms from Yashodhara:

The painting depicts Lord Buddha as a beggar at the door of Yashodhara. Facing a profound dilemma, Yashodhara decides to give her son, Rahul, to Buddha as an offering.
The innocence of Rahul, the self-sacrificing expression of Yashodhara, and the spiritual countenance of Lord Buddha are beautifully captured.

Artistic Details:

Lord Buddha is presented in a large size, symbolizing his role as the benefactor of the world.
The cave ceiling is adorned with beautiful decorations, enhancing the overall aesthetic appeal.

Mahakapi Jataka: Selflessness and Sacrifice

Monkey's Act of Sacrifice:

The Mahakapi Jataka portrays a story where many monkeys live on a mango tree on the Ganges' banks.
Despite Bodhisattva monkey's refusal, one monkey drops a mango into the river, setting off a series of events leading to the king's visit.

Bodhisattva's Sacrifice:

Bodhisattva sacrifices himself to save others, running towards another tree to create a bridge for fellow monkeys.
Devadatta, the cousin from a previous life, betrays Bodhisattva, causing harm, but the king's compassion leads to the Bodhisattva's healing and salvation.

Story of Sinhalavadan: Protector and Saviour

Sinhala's Perilous Journey:

Sinhala, the son of a merchant, survives a sea storm and cannibalistic demon on Tamar Island due to the white horse carrying the Bodhisattva.

Island Named 'Sinhala':

After driving away the demon, the island is named 'Sinhala Island' in honor of the Bodhisattva's heroic act.

Mrig Jatak: Compassion and Betrayal

Golden Deer's Act of Compassion:

A golden deer saves a debt-ridden businessman from suicide and requests him not to reveal the incident.

Betrayal and Redemption:

The merchant's greed leads to betrayal, as he discloses the deer's location to the king, but the deer, the Bodhisattva himself, seeks mercy for the merchant.

Verandah Scenes: Aesthetic Masterpieces

Flying Gandharva Apsaras and Indra's Inscription:

In the verandah outside the cave, 'flying Gandharva Apsaras and inscription of Indra' are depicted.

Surapan Marking and Flying Nymph:

A 'flying nymph' is portrayed in the sky on the right side, showcasing remarkable artistry.
'Surapan' marking is also visible, contributing to the richness of the paintings.

CAVE 18:

Rectangular excavation leading into another cell with two pillars.

CAVE 19:

Chaityagriha datable to the fifth century A.D., known for sculptural grandeur and two life-size Yaksha images.
Painted depictions of Buddha in various postures.

CAVE 20:

Pillar-less monastery with a hall, cells, sanctum sanctorum, and pillared verandah, datable between A.D. 450 and 525.
Notable for a sculpture of seven Buddhas accompanied by attendants.

CAVE 21:

Monastery with a hall, 12 pillars, 12 cells, sanctum sanctorum, and a pillared verandah.
Traces of paintings depicting Buddha preaching a congregation.

CAVE 22:

Monastery with an astylar hall, four unfinished cells, sanctum sanctorum, and a narrow verandah.
Sculptural depictions of Buddha in different forms and painted figures of Manushi-Buddhas with Maitreya.

CAVE 23:

Unfinished monastery with an astylar hall, sanctum sanctorum, antechamber, side cells, and a pillared verandah.
Known for rich decoration of pillars and pilasters and naga doorkeepers.

CAVE 24:

Incomplete monastery with a hall, pillared verandah, and sanctum sanctorum.
Second largest excavation at Ajanta after Cave 4.

CAVE 25:

Monastery at a higher level with an astylar hall, pillared verandah, and an enclosed courtyard.
Two cells on the left end of the verandah, devoid of shrine in the hall.

CAVE 26:

Chaityagriha similar to Cave 19, larger in dimension with more elaborate sculpted figures.

Mara Vijaya at Ajanta: A Sculptural Tapestry of Enlightenment

· In the sacred depths of Ajanta Cave No. 26, an extraordinary sculptural narrative unfolds, immortalizing the profound theme of Mara Vijaya—the personification of the tumultuous mental journey the Buddha experienced during his enlightenment. Crafted with unparalleled mastery, this unique sculptural representation graces the right wall near the colossal Buddha image of Mahaparinibbana.

· Enlightened Dialogues in Stone Central to the panel is the Buddha, his right hand gesturing towards the earth as a testament to his boundless generosity. A profound dialogue unfolds between the Buddha and Mara, the embodiment of desire. The relief sculpture encapsulates the intense mental struggle that accompanied the Buddha's enlightenment, showcasing the intricate interplay of spiritual forces.

· A Symphony of Complexity and Movement The sculptural composition radiates complexity, featuring highly voluminous images arranged dynamically to evoke movement. On the right, Mara, accompanied by his diverse army, marches towards the Buddha. The army includes beings with grotesque animal faces, a vivid portrayal of desire's multifaceted nature. At the lower base, dancing figures with forward-bulging waists and expressive poses infuse the scene with vibrant energy.

· A Moment of Contemplation and Adoration In the left lower section, Mara contemplates strategies to disturb Siddhartha—the Buddha before enlightenment. The sculpted army, departing in the lower half of the panel, pays adoration to the Buddha. At the center, the Buddha sits in padmasana, with a dense tree depicted behind him. The facial features of Mara's army subtly carry characteristics reminiscent of sculptures from Vidarbha, revealing the stylistic affiliations of the artisans at Ajanta.

CAVE 27:

Could have been part of Cave 26, consisting of two storeys.
Monastery with a hall, four cells, antechamber, and sanctum sanctorum.

CAVE 28:

Unfinished monastery with only the pillared verandah excavated.

CAVE 29:

Unfinished chaityagriha in its first stage of excavation.
Located at the highest level between Caves 20 and 21.

Technique

Believed Technique: Authorities such as Havell, Herringham, Percy Brown suggest that the Ajanta paintings are mural paintings in tempera.

Evidence for Tempera: Opacity of colors, impermanence of colors (peeling off in spots), and thinness of plaster support the argument for tempera.

Plaster Thickness: The plaster thickness at Ajanta caves is mentioned to be as thin as an eggshell in some places, contrary to the thickness required for true fresco.

True Fresco Technique:
- Method: Painting is done on wet plaster with colors mixed with water.
- Incorporation with Plaster: Colors soak into the wet plaster, becoming permanently incorporated with it as it dries.
- Limitations: Only pigments that do not react with lime can be used. The artist can only work on the plaster surface that remains wet.
- Process: Parts untouched by the painter have to be cut away at the end of the day. The surface is replastered and worked on while still damp.
Tempera Technique:
- Method: The whole surface is plastered and allowed to dry. A portion is dampened overnight, and the painter works on this wet surface using the same colors as in true fresco.
- Incorporation with Plaster: Colors are applied on top of the dry plaster rather than being incorporated into it.
- Process: More leisurely compared to true fresco. The entire surface doesn't need to be wet during the painting process.
Painting Process at Ajanta:
- Outline Sketching: Artists at Ajanta first sketched the outline with Indian red and a brush.
- Modeling: The figure was gradually modeled.
- Color Application: Colors were then applied, followed by another outline on top.
- Final Touches: Highest lights, deepest shadows, delicate touches, and details like eyebrows and hair were applied later.
Contrast with Fresco Technique:
- Execution Speed: The described process at Ajanta involves multiple stages and details, which contrasts with the rapid execution characteristic of true fresco.